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 Pakistan,
the Indus land, is
the child of the
Indus in the same
way as Egypt is the
gift of Nile. The
Indus has provided
unity, fertility,
communication,
direction and the
entire landscape to
the country. Its
location marks it as
a great divide as
well as a link
between central Asia
and south Asia. But
the historical
movements of the
people from Central
Asia and South Asia
have given to it a
character of its own
and have established
closer relation
between the people
of Pakistan and
those of Central
Asia in the field of
culture, language,
literature, food,
dress, furniture and
folklore. However,
it is the Arabian
Sea that has opened
the doors for
journey beyond to
the Arabian world
through the Gulf and
Red Sea right into
the ancient
civilization of
Mesopotamia and
Egypt. It is this
Sea voyage that gave
to the Indus Land
its earliest name of
Meluhha because the
Indus people were
characterized as
Malahha (Sailor) in
the Babylonian
records. It is for
this reason that the
oldest civilization
of this land, called
Indus Civilization,
had unbreakable
bonds of culture and
trade link with the
Gulf States of
Dubai, Abu Dabi,
Sharja, Qatter,
Bahrain and right
from Oman to Kuwait.
While a Meluhhan
village sprang up in
ancient Mesopotamia
(Modern Iraq), the
Indus seals, painted
pottery, lapis
lazuli and many
other items were
exchanged for
copper, tin and
several other
objects from Oman
and Gulf States. It
is to facilitate
this trade that the
Indus writing was
evolved in the same
proto-symbolic style
as the contemporary
cuneiform writing of
Mesopotamia. Much
later in history it
is the pursuit of
this seaward trade
that introduced
Islam from Arabia in
to Pakistan. The
twin foundations of
cultural link have
helped build the
stable edifice of
Islamic civilization
in this country. All
these cultural
developments are
writ-large in the
personality of the
people of Pakistan.
As in many other
countries of the
world, man in
Pakistan began with
the technology of
working on old stone
by using quartzite
and flint found in
Rohri hills and
stone pebbles found
in the Soan Valley.
The oldest stone
tool in the world,
going back to 2.2
million years old,
has been found at
Rabat, about fifteen
miles away from
Rawalpindi, thus
breaking the African
record. The largest
hand Axe has also
been found in the
Soan Valley.
Although man is
still hiding in some
corner, the Soan
pebble stone age
culture show a link
with the Hissar
Culture in Central
Asia. Later about
fifty thousand B.C.
at Sangho Cave in
Mardan District man
improved his
technology for
working on Quartz in
order to chase the
animal in closed
valleys. Still later
he worked on micro
quartz and chert or
flint and produced
arrows, knives,
scrapers and blades
and hunted the
feeling deer and
ibexes with bow and
arrow. Such an
hunting scene is
well illustrated on
several rock
carvings,
particularly near
Chilas in the
Northern Areas of
Pakistan along the
Karakorum Highway -
a style of rock art
so well known in the
trans- Pamir region
of Tajikistan and
Kirghizstan.
However, the first
settled life began
in the eight
millennium B.C. when
the first village
was found at
Mehergarh in the
Sibi districts of
Balochistan
comparable with the
earliest villages of
Jericho in Palestine
and Jarmo in Iraq.
Here their mud
houses have been
excavated and
agricultural land
known for the
cultivation of maize
and wheat. Man began
to live together in
settled social life
and used polished
stone tools, made
pots and pans, beads
and other ornaments.
His taste for
decoration developed
and he began to
paint his vessels,
jars, bowls,
drinking glasses,
dishes and plates.
It was now that he
discovered the
advantage of using
metals for his tools
and other objects of
daily use. For the
first time in
seventh millennium
B.C. he learnt to
use bronze. From the
first revolution in
his social, cultural
and economic life.
He established trade
relation with the
people of
Turkamenistan,
Uzbekistan, Iran and
other Arab world.
He not only
specialized in
painting different
designs on pottery,
made varieties of
pots and used cotton
and wool but also
made terracotta
figurines and
imported precious
stones from
Afghanistan and
Central Asia. This
early bronze age
culture spread out
in the country side
of Sindh,
Balochistan, Punjab
and North West
Frontier Province.
And this early
beginning led to the
concentration of
population into
small towns. Such as
Kot-Diji in Sindh
and Rehman Dheri in
Dera Ismail Khan
District. It is this
social and Cultural
change that led to
the rise of the
famous cities of
Mohenjodaro and
Harappra, the
largest
concentration of
population including
artisans, craftsman,
businessmen and
rulers. This
culminated in the
peak of the Indus
Civilization, which
was primarily based
on intensive
irrigated land
agriculture and
overseas trade and
contact with Iran,
Gulf States,
Mesopotamia and
Egypt. Dams were
built for storing
river water, land
was Cultivated by
means of bullock-
harnessed plough - a
system that still
prevails in
Pakistan, granaries
for food storage
were built, furnace
were used for
controlling
temperature for
making red pottery
and various kinds of
ornaments, beads of
carnelian, agate and
terracotta were
pierced through, and
above all they
traded their
finished goods with
Central Asia and
Arab world. It is
these trade divided
that enriched the
urban populace who
developed a new
sense of moral
honesty, discipline
and cleanliness, and
above all a social
stratification in
which the priests
and the mercantile
class dominated the
society. The picture
of high civilization
can be gathered only
by looking at the
city of Mohenjodaro,
the first planned
city in the world,
in which streets are
aligned straight,
parallels to each
other, with a cross
streets cutting at
right angles. It is
through these wide
streets that wheeled
carriages, drawn by bulls or asses,
moved about,
carrying
well-adorned persons
seated on them,
appreciating the
closely aligned
houses, made of pucca bricks, all
running straight
along the streets.
And then through the
middle of the
streets ran stone
dressed drains
covered with stone
slabs - a practice
of keeping the
streets clean from
polluted water, for
the first time seen
in the world.
The Indus
Civilization is the
first literate
Civilization of the
subcontinent. The
cities were centres
of art and craft.
Where the artisan
produced several
kinds of goods that
were exported to
other countries.
Sailing boats sailed
out from Mohenjodaro
and anchored in the
port of the Gulf,
which region was
perhaps known as
Dilmin. However, it
was the city
administration that
managed the urban
life in strict
discipline and
controlled the trade
in their hands. The
discipline is
derived from the
strict practice of
meditation (yoga)
that was practiced
by the elite of the
city, who appear to
have trimmed their
beard and hair
combed and tied with
golden fillets. The
body was covered
with a shawl bearing
trefoil designs on
them. Such a noble
man with a sharp
nose and long wish
eyes shows a
contrast with a
bronze figurine of a
dancing and singing
girl, plying music
with her fully bang
led hand, as we find
today with the
Cholistan ladies
having bangled
hands. Obviously
there were
distinctive ethnic
groups of people in
Mohenjodaro but the
dominant class of
rulers and merchants
appear to be
distinctive from the
rest of the
population. It is
these literate
people who inter-
acted with the
Arabian people and
continued to
maintain strict
discipline in the
society. It is they
who developed
astronomy,
mathematics, and
science in the
country along with
numerical symbols,
weights and measures
but they thoroughly
intermixed in the
society and also
believed in the
local cult of tree
and tree deities and
animal totems. The
most prominent
animals as attested
in the seals are
bull, buffalo,
elephant, tiger,
rhinoceros,
alligator and deer
and ibexes. However,
Mesopotamian
influences are seen
in the figures of
Gilgamash, Enkidu,
joint statue of the
bull and man and
other animals with
several heads and
bodies. However, the
unique local concept
is that of highly
meditative man,
seated in his heels,
with three or four
heads, and combining
in himself the power
to control the
animals probably
with a crown of
horns or some times
a tree overhead. It
is this supreme
deity, depicted on
Seals, that draws
the serpent
worshippers and
overpowers the
animals. A part from
these there was no
concept of nature
worship as we find
in the
 Vedas of the
Aryans. The ritual
consisted of
offerings through
the intermediary of
mythological
composite animals to
the tree deity.
These dose not
appear to have been
any concept of
animals sacrifice
nor worship of any
idol or idols. The
Indus civilization
lasted for nearly
five hundred years
and flourished up to
1750 B.C. when we
notice the movements
of nomadic tribes in
Central Asia. As a
result the Asian
trade system was
greatly disturbed.
Consequently the
trade and industry
of the Indus people
greatly suffered
with the result that
led to the end of
the Civilization.
The cities vanished,
the noble lost their
position. The
writing finished.
The common people
met with the influx
of new horse-riding
pastoralists who
hardly understood
the system of
irrigated
agriculture and
hence the value of
dams. Such nomadic
tribes are known
from the large
number of graves and
their village
settlements all over
Swat, Dir and Bajaur
right up to Taxila.
In the Northern
Areas of Pakistan
different group of
such tribes, known
as Dardic people are
known from their
graves. The tribes
of the plains are
recognized as
different groups of
the Aryans from the
hilly tribes of the
North- the ancestors
of the Kalash people
and those who now
speak Shina,
Burushaski and other
Kohistani languages.
They had nothing to
do with the cities
as we find them
building small
villages nor did
they know
irrigation. Infect
they believed in
nature gods, one of
them Indra destroyed
the dams and spelled
disaster on the
local Dasyus who
differed from them
in colour, creed and
language. These
Aryans conquerors
developed there own
religion of the
Vedas, practiced
animal sacrifice and
gradually built up
tribal kingdoms all
over the Indus
Valley. The most
prominent being that
of Gandhara with
capitals at
Pushkalavati (modern
Charsadda) and
Taxila, the last
having been the
older capital of
Takshaka, the king
of serpent
worshippers.
Taksha-sila (a
Sanskrit word,
literally translated
in to Persian Mari-Qila)
survive in modern
Margala. It become
the strong hold of
the Aryans, whose
great epic book
Mahabharata was for
the first time
recited here. Since
that time
Takshka-sila or
Taxila lying on the
western side of
Margala remained the
capital of the Indus
land, which was
called Sapta- Sindhu
(the land of seven
rivers) by the
Aryans. It because
of this central
location, en routs
from Central to
South Asia that the
new capital of
Pakistan has been
established at Islamabad on the
eastern side of
Margala hill , thus
giving a historical
link from the most
ancient to modern
time and new
significance to
Pakistan as a link
between Central and
South Asia.
The city of Taxila
began to grow from
6th century B.C.
onward when
Achaemenian kings by
name Cyrus and
Darius joined this
city by road and
postal services with
their own capital at
Persepolis in Iran.
Here one can see the
Aryan village at
Hatial mound lying
above the pre-Aryan
bronze age capital
of Takshakas
(Serpent
worshippers). One
can also visit the
Achaemenian city at
Bhir mound, where
old bazaars and
royal palace, with
long covered drain,
have been
discovered. Land
rout trade with Iran
and the west once
again started with
the issue of coin
currency for the
first time in the
Indus land. But the
most important was
the great use of
iron technology,
which produced
several kind of iron
tools, weapons and
other objects of
daily use as known
as from the
excavations at
Taxila. Above all a
new writing known as
Kharoshti was
developed here. At
the same time the
oldest University of
the world was
founded at Taxila,
where taught the
great grammarian
Panini, born at the
modern village of
Lahur in Sawabi
district of the
Frontier Province.
It is the basis of
this grammar that
modern linguistics
has been developed.
It is in this
University that
Chandra Gupta Maurya
got his education,
who later founded
the first sub
continental empire
in South Asia. He
developed the
Mauryan city at Bhir
mound in Taxila,
where ruled his
grandson, Ashoka,
twice as governor.
He introduced
Buddhism in Gandhara
and built the first
Buddhist monastery,
called Dharmarajika
Vihara, at Taxila.
Ashoka has left
behind his Rock
Edicts at two
palaces, one at
Mansehra and another
at Shahbazgari,
written in Kharoshti.
Long before the rise
of Chandra Gupta
Maurya the
Achaemenian empire,
that had extended
from Pakistan to
Greece and Egypt,
had collapsed under
the onslaught of
Alexander of
Macedonia. He first
finished with the
Greek city states,
united the Greeks,
and dashed forward
to annex the
Achaemenian empire
and hence proceeded
to all those places
where the
Achaemenian had
ruled. In this march
they come to Taxila
in 326 B.C. where he
was welcomed by the
local king Ambhi in
his palace at Bhir
mound. It is here as
well as at Bhira in
Jhelum district that
Alexander's remains
can be seen.
However, he fought
the greatest battale
on the bank of the
Jhelum river
opposite the present
village of Jalalpur
Sharif against Porus,
the head of the
heroic Puru tribe,
whose descendents
still supply
military personal to
the Pakistan army.
Alexander's battle
place was at Mong,
where he founded a
new city, called
Nikea, the city of
victory. The other
city which he
founded was called
Bucaphela after the
name of his horse
that died here.
However, the most
captivating site is
at Jalalpur Shaif,
laying on the bank
of rivulet Gandaria,
perhaps Sikanaria,
where Alexander's
monument has now
been built on the
spot where he
stopped for about
two months before
launching his attack
on Porus.
The Achaemenian and
Alexander's contacts
with Pakistan are
very important from
the point of view of
educational and
Cultural history.
The Achaemenian
brought the learning
and science of
Mesopotamia
Civilization that
enriched the
University of Taxila.
They also introduced
their administrative
system here, on the
basis of which the
famous book on
political science,
called Arthasastra
was written in
Sanskrit language in
Taxila by Kautilya,
known as Chanakya,
the teacher of
Chandra Gupta Maurya.
It is this book that
was adapted for the
administrative of
the Mauryan empire.
On the basis of
Achaemenian currency
the Mauryan punch
marked coins. So
well known in Taxila,
were produced. It is
their Aramaic
writing, used by
Achaemenian clerks,
that led to the
development of
Kharoshti in
Pakistan and trade
with the Semitic
world that created
the Brahmi writing
in India. On the
other hand Alexander
brought Greek
knowledge and
science to Taxila
and introduced Greek
type of coin
currency. It is
Taxila that
philosophers and men
of learning of the
two countries met
and developed
science, mathematics
and astronomy. Above
all Alexander left
behind large number
of Greeks in Central
Asia, who founded
the Bactrian Greek
kingdom in mid-third
century B.C. it is
the descendants of
these Bactrian
Greeks who later
advanced in to
Pakistan and built
up the Greek kingdom
here and built up
their own city at
Sirkap in Taxila.
This is the second
well planned city in
Pakistan. The Greeks
introduced their
language, art and
religion in the
country of Gandhara,
where ruled thirteen
Greek kings and
queens. Their
language lasted more
than five hundred
years and their art
and religion and
considerable
influence on the
flourish of Gandhara
Civilization.
This civilization
was the result of
interaction of
several peoples who
followed the Greeks,
the Scythians, the
Parthians and
Kushans who came one
the other from
Central Asia along
the Silk Road and
integrated them
selves into the
local society. It is
under their
patronage that
Buddhism evolved
here into its new
Mahayana form and
this become the
religion of the
contemporary people
in Pakistan. Under
their encouragement
the Buddhist monks
moved along the Silk
Road freely and
carried this
religion to central
Asia, China, Korea
and Japan. It is
again the trade
along the silk road
that was
particularly
controlled by the
Kushana emperors,
who built a mighty
empire with Peshawar
as their Capital,
the boundaries of
which extended from
the Aral Sea to the
Arabian Sea and from
Afghanistan to the
Bay of Bengal. It is
the dividends of
trade that enriched
Pakistan and led to
the development of
Gandhara Art, which
mirrors the social,
religious and common
man's life of the
time. It is an art
that was blend of
the Greek classical
and local arts,
which created the
finest statues of
Buddha and
Buddhisatttvas that
today decorate the
museums all over the
world. At the same
time the sculpture
depict the whole
life of the Buddha
in a manner that is
unsurpassed. Many
Greek themes, their
gods, typical toilet
trays, Greek life
scenes showing
musicians, drinking
bouts and love
making are presented
in there natural
fashion. The
Kushanas period was
the golden age of
Pakistan as the Silk
Road trade brought
unparalleled
prosperity to the
people of the
country.
The luxury items
produced in the
country enrich the
museum at Taxila at
that show the
Cultural and trends
of life of the time.
Gandhara art is the
high water
achievement of the
people of Pakistan.
Mahayana Buddhism
was the inspiring
ideal of the time
and the Buddhist
stupas and
monasteries survive
in every nook and
corner of the hills.
It was this time
that the country was
known as
Kushana-shahar, the
land of the Kushanas,
to which came the
Romanships to carry
the luxury goods in
exchange for Roman
Siler and Gold, that
were used by the
Kushana emperors and
as a result their
gold currency
flooded the country
and all along the
Silk road. It is
these Kushana kings
who have gifted the
national dress of
shalwar and kamiz
and sherwani to
Pakistan. Their
dress and
decorations are
deeply imprinted on
the Indus land, that
is now Pakistan.
Then came from
Central Asia the
Huns and the Turks
who gave to Pakistan
the present ethnic,
their Culture, Food
and Adab. The Jats,
Gakkhars, Janjuas (Jouanjouan
of the Chinese) and
Gujars all trekked
into Pakistan and
made their home
here. The Rajput
rose and founded the
feudal system in
Punjab and Sindh in
the same way the
Pashtuns, who
borrowed the surname
of Gul and later the
title of Khan from
the Mongols, their
Sardari system in
Balochistan, and
slowly developed the
Wadera practice in
the Indus delta
region of Sindh.
This feudal
arrangements, which
was the result of
confederated tribes
of the Huns, led to
new administrative
system in the
country and created
a new form of land management that has
lasted until today.
The tribes have
fused into the
agricultural society
but their
brotherhoods have
survived and they
have given a
permanent character
to Pakistan.
In the early eight
Century A.D. the
Arabs brought Islam
in Sindh and Multan
built up the kingdom
of Al-Mansurah in
Sindh. At the same
time their east ward
Sea trade introduced
porcelain and called
on were from China
and popularized
glass were from Iran
Syria- new materials
that can be seen in
the excavations at
Bambhore in Sindh.
With the Muslims
Turks came the Sufis
and Dervishes from
Central Asia. Iran
and Afghanistan and
they spread Islam
all over the
country. It is
Sultan Mahamud of
Ghazni who made
Lahore- the city of
Data Sahib as his
second capital.
However, the city of
Multan become famous
as the city of
Saints although it
lay en route the
camel caravan that
carried on trade
between Pakistan and
Central Asia right
up to Baku in
Azerbaijan. It is
these cities that
the famous Muslims
monuments of old are
to be seen. As a
result of the
Saintly activity
Pakistan become a
land of Islamic
Civilization. In
several villages and
cities we now find
the Dargah of these
Muslims Saints.
While Shahbaz
Kalandar is a well
known in Sindh, Baba
Farid Shakarganj
resided over Pak
Pattan in Punjab,
Buner Baba rules
over the Frontier
region, and Syed Ali
Hamdani is the real
Sufi Saint in
Kashmir. The capital
city of Islamabad
enshrines the well
known Golra Sharif
and Barri Imam. It
is in these Saints
who influenced the
development of Sufi
literature in all
the languages of
Pakistan and their
monumental tombs
that attract the
people from all the
country. In the old
city of Thatta at
Makli hill several
tombs and Mausoleums
are spread over the
place that surpass
in the beauty of
stone carving but
much more
 than this
they evidence the
historical evolution
of architecture from
12th century A.D. to
the Mughal time.
This was a period of
great change in the
historical
integration of the
people in Pakistan
when the country was
brought closer to
Central Asia and the
Arab world. The
mixing of several
tribes from both
these regions
transformed the
ethnic complex of
the country. Just as
in the period of
Kushanas of Mahayana
type rose here and
the Buddhist monks
out from this land
along the Silk road
to carry the massage
of the Buddha, now
it was the Arabs and
the Muslims Saints
from Central Asia
who came in the
reverse direction
and flocked in the
prosperous land of
Pakistan. New trade
route were opened in
the reverse
direction from those
countries into the
Indus land. From the
Huns to the Turks
the age of cavalry
dominated the life
scene. Many Rock
carvings in Central
Punjab show men
riding, even
standing on horse
back and brandishing
their swords and
shooting arrows.
Hence forward Polo
game become common
and sword dance was
common, as seen in
the Rock carving
near Chilas. The
foundation of
Muslims state was
firmly laid, in
which the dominate
position first
occupied by the
Arabs in Sindh and
Multan and later by
the Gaznavid and
Ghorid Sultans who
made the Indus
country as their
spring board from
the onward conquest
of India. A
beautiful monument
in memory of sultan
Ghori can be seen at
Suhawa on the
National Highway. It
was therefore in the
fitness of things
that the first
missile made in
Pakistan was named
after Ghori. Several
Muslims kingdoms
grew up in this
country. Beginning
from north we find
the Tarkhan ruling
dynasty, who came
from trans-pamir
region here and
become supreme in
the Gilgit area. The
descendent of Shah
Mir founded the
Muslims Sultanate in
Kashmir maintained
its independents
until the time of
the Mughal emperor
Akbar. The Pushtun
tribes made their
movements and
asserted their
independence in the
land watered by the
western branch of
the Indus River. The
Langhas and later
the Arghuns become
the Master of Multan.
The Sama ruling
dynasty started a
new era of Cultural
development and
prosperity in Sindh.
The Baluchis in
concert with Brahuis
leapt forward not
only to build their
kingdom in
Balochistan but also
migrated eastward
and northward. Apart
from these political
shape of the
country, there was
an unparalleled
development in art
and architecture,
literature and
music, and
particularly new
social integration
took place on the
basis of the
patronage of local
languages, such as
Baluchi, Sindhi,
Panjabi, Pashto,
Kashmiri, Shina and
Burushaski. All
these languages
received literary
form with the
support of the
Muslims rulers and
the first time their
literatures began to
take shape. They
received influence
from Arabic and
Persian and added
many themes from the
Folklores as well as
from those of
Central Asia. Such
an unusual
developments
transformed the
society with the
stories from
Shahnama and Hazar
Dastan and with the
Folk-tales from
Lila-Majnun,
Sassi-Punnu and
Hir-Ranjha. The
stringed
instruments, the
dholak and the dhap
and also flute and
trinklets gave a new
tone to the life of
the people of Multan,
Thatta, Marha Shrif
in D.I. Khan, Swat
and Kashmir, and
finally Gilgit,
Hunza and Baltistan
created the finest
architecture of the
time. That was the
period of new
religious activity
in the country side
when Islam become
the dominant
religion of the
people who were
directly linked in
religious ties with
the people of
Central Asia, Iran,
Afghanistan, Turkey
and Arab world.
The migrant people
had brought the new
technology of
straining the horse
from Central Asia
and Iran. Were ever
the horse galloped
right up the corner
of Bengal and Orissa,
the Turks and
Afghans advanced
from Pakistan and
established new
empires. Here the
artisans and
craftsman gathered
in new centre,
cities began to grow
with new craft
mohallas, and they
began to specialise
in the products of
Shawl and carpets in
Kashmir, chapkan,
chadar and dopatta
in Punjab and
Chitral and Northern
Areas, tile work in
Multan, Hala and
Hyderabad, block
printing in Sindh
and fine carpentry
in Chiniot, Bhira
and Dera Ismail
Khan. As a result
several families
occupied themselves
in traditional
crafts and passed
them on to their own
children.
Then came the Mughal
emperors, descendent
of Amir Timur, who,
following the Mongol
ruler Changiz Khan,
had embarked on
building a new world
empire on the basis
of organizing a new
type of cavalry and
making a new
disciplined army in
the unites of
hundred and
thousand. The later
still survive in the
name of Hazara both
in Pakistan and
Afghanistan. The
first Mughal
emperor, Zahiruddin
Muhammad Baber, who
had to come out from
Farghana, brought a
new taste of poetry,
baghicha and
architectural forms
from the natural
environment and
landscape from
Farghana and
Samarqand, latter
city reflecting the
delicious water of
Zarafshan (golden)
river. Baber built
his first terraced
garden in Kabul and
then choose the
beautiful spot at
Kalda or Kallar
Kahar in Chakwal
district and built
here Bagh-i-Safa on
the very spot marked
by this throne seat.
It was again
terraced garden
watered by a near by
spring. At the old
Bhira on the bank of
Jhelum he built a
fort and then
proceeded to Shah
Dara (the Royal pass
Gate) that opened
his route the city
of Lahore. At Shah
Dara several garden
were laid by by the
Mughal noblemen but
only one is
preserved inside
Jahangir tomb that
was built by his
queen Nur Jehan who
lies buried in
another mausoleums.
The tomb along with
the garden is now
desolate. There is
also Kamran's
baradari, without
the garden, that
still defies the
flood of the Ravi
river. When the
Mughal emperors
followed Baber one
after the other,
they choose the old
Lahore on the bank
of Ravi to their
main Urban centres
in Punjab. It was
developed as a city
of gardens with
numerous gardens
around but the main
Mughal fortress was
built in an Island,
surrounded by the
Ravi on the three
sides and only on
the east it was
joined to the city
proper. Here third
Mughal emperor Akbar
transferred his
capital from Agra to
meet the challenge
of cousin Mirza
Hakim. Here he laid
the foundation of a
typical Mughal
citadel with royal
residences, called
Akbari Mahal and
Jahangiri Mahal,
with a prominent
Diwan-i-Aam built in
the traditional
Iranian style, all
constructed in red
sand stone imported
from Rajistan. Later
Akbar's grandson
Shah Jehan, the King
of architecture,
transformed many
buildings and
renewed to his taste with white marble.
He added Diwan-i-Khas that
overlooked Ravi, his
palace and Turkish
Bath and still more
important the Moti
Masjid, the gem of
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