 The historical
events of the city
of Lahore have
dominated the Punjab
and it would be true
to say that the
history of Lahore is
in fact history of
the Punjab. Many
different names have
been used for
Lahore, which
include Alahvar,
Lahanaur, Lahanor,
Lahanur, Lahavur,
Lahor, Lahore, Lahur,
Lanhor, Laohur,
Lauhavar, Lauhor,
Lauhur, Lavhur,
Lohavar, Lohavar,
Lohavur, Lohor, Lohu,
Luhavar.
The city is believed
to have been founded
by the legendary Loh,
son of the Hindu
mythological figure
Rama, and was
subsequently
governed by several
Hindu dynasties.
Did Lahore exist
when Alexander's
Macedonian forces
traversed the land
of the Punjab in 4th
century BC? Although
not established
conclusively from
contemporary
chronicles, the 19th
century British
archaeologist
Alexander Cunningham
is confident that
the Amba Kapi ruins
close to Lahore are
the Amakatis,
mentioned in
historical accounts
as being near
Ptolemy's Labokla.
The first record of
the existence of
Lahore is provided
by Hiuen Tsiang, a
Chinese traveller,
who mentions a
Brahmanical city
that he visited in
AD 630 on his way to
Jullunder. Alberuni
(973-1050), the
celebrated Muslim
scientist from
Central Asia, also
mentions Lahore,
though rather than
the city it is the
Kingdom of Lahore
that he refers to,
and mentions
Mandhukur as the
capital, believed to
be the present-day
Sialkot.
THE MUGHALS
BABUR
As is well known, it
was in 1526 that
Babur with his lean,
welltrained army was
able to defeat the
 incumbent Emperor Ibrahim Lodhi's
forces—one hundred
thousand troops and
one thousand
elephants—in the
battle of Panipat
and thus established
his rule in
Hindustan. The
Mughal rule heralded
a period of
prosperity and
stability to the
province and to
Lahore city itself.
Babur is thought to
have visited Lahore during
the last year of his
reign, when Mirza
Kamran received him
in the garden that
the latter had built
on the banks of the
river Ravi.
The events of
Humayun's grave
illness are well
known, along with
Babur's
self-surrender to
save his son with
the prayer, "0 God!
if a life may be
exchanged for a
life, I who am Babur,
I give my life and
being for Humayun."
After the death of
Zahiruddin Muhammad
Babur Padishah Ghazi
in December 1530,
Humayun assumed the
reins of power. By
all accounts,
Humayun was a
sensitive monarch. A
great bibliophile,
he was also a
credible poet. He
was born into a
family of poets,
both his father
Babur and his
brother Kamran being
known for their
dewans (collection
of poetry).
HUMAYUN
This first period of
Humayun's reign was
a turbulent one. It
was fraught with
difficulties for him
not only from the
contender, the
Afghan Sher Shah
Suri, but also from
his own step
brothers including
Mirza
 Hindal and the
ambitious Mirza
Kamran. Kamran
having taken over
the charge of Kabul,
Qandahar as well as
of Lahore.
In the wake of Sher
Shah's attacks,
Humayun was forced
to leave Agra and
hasten towards
Lahore. The city
became the focal
point in an attempt
to save at least a
part of the empire.
Humayun, along with
his entourage and
Chaghatai sultans
and amirs halted for
three 'months in
Lahore in order to
negotiate with Sher
Shah Sur's
emissaries. He sent
the following
message to Sher
Shah. "What-justice
is there in this? I
have left you the
whole of Hindustan.
Leave Lahore alone,
and let Sirhind,
where you are, be a
boundary between you
and me." Sher Shah
in his rejoinder
declared: 'I have
left you Kabul. You
should go there." In
view of Sher Shah's
relentless pursuit
and the imminent
arrival of his
forces, Lahore saw
the largest exodus
of people that it
had ever witnessed —
200,000 of its
inhabitants fled the
city in one day!
Having stalked the
Mughal army for some
distance, Sher Shah
arrived in Lahore,
appointing his able
general Khwas Khan
Viceroy of the
province.
After being hit by a
bursting shell
(1545), Sher Khan
Sur, as he lay
dying, regretted
that he had not
razed the city of
Lahore to the
ground, "for," he
said, "such a large
city should not
exist on the very
road of an invader,
who immediately
after capturing it
on his arrival,
could collect his
supplies and
organize his
resources there."
Humayun's flight to
Persia and his exile
at the court of Shah
Tahmasp is well
known. The death of
Islam Shah, son of
Sher Shah in 1554,
and dissensions
among the Afghan
princes paved the
way for Humayun's
bid for the
recapture of Babur's
empire. After an
exile of fourteen
long years, from
Kabul he embarked on
his journey to
Hindustan. On
hearing of the
impending arrival of
the Mughal forces,
Lahore once again
witnessed a mass
exit of its
residents, when the
Afghans of the city
took to flight.
After crossing the
Indus from Peshawar
Humayun marched to
Lahore which played
a pivotal role in
fulfilling his
ambitions. It was in
Lahore city that he
made a triumphant
entry in 1554 to
welcoming crowds.
Humayun himself did
not live long after
that, since he
suffered a fatal
fall on his library
stairs in Delhi.
Akbar, his young
son, who was left in
charge of the subah
(province) of the
Punjab was at
Kalanor at the time
and was crowned king
by his ataliq
(tutor), a Mughal
nobleman named
Bayram Khan.
AKBAR
In the early days of
his rule, not only
was Akbar threatened
with external
aggression, but his
court itself was
beset with
intrigues. The
Protector's Party
was led by his
ataliq and regent
Bayram Khan, while
the second one was
led by Maham-Angah,
the emperor's
wetnurse.
During the early
days as Akbar tried
to consolidate his
empire, it is ironic
that the major
threat to Lahore
should have been
posed by his
half-brother Mirza
Muhammad Hakim.
Hakim first was
closely followed by
Akbar himself who
made a triumphant
entry into Kabul.
Having consolidated
his empire, Akbar
turned his gaze
towards the
northwest and
established his
capital in Lahore.
It was the Timurid
preoccupation with
Afghanistan and
Transoxiana (Mawarunnahar,
across the Oxus, the
present Central
Asia), parts of
which had been held
by Babur at one
time, that in 1585
led Akbar to
establish his court
in Lahore for an
extended period of
time.
The court chronicler
AbulFazlAllami
explained the
motivation behind
Akbar's decision:
"His [the
 emperor's]
sole thought was
that he would stay
for a while in the
Punjab, and would
give peace to the Zabuli Land
(Afghanistan),
cleanse Swad and
Bajaur of the stain
of rebellion, uproot
the thorn of the
Tarikian [also known
as the Roshnais]
from Tirah and
Bangash, seize the
garden of Kashmir,
and bring the
populous country of
Tatta (Scinde)
within the empire.
Furthermore he would
send a glorious army
thither, and follow
it up in person.
With these profound
views he resolved to
spend some time in
Lahore." The 'some
time' would extend
to fourteen years
(1585 to December
1598) during which
period Lahore would
become the capital
of the Mughal
Empire.
This period became
the most important
phase for Lahore,
and can be rightly
considered its
golden period, since
apart from a
commercial hub, the
city also became the
cultural capital of
the empire. Abul
Fazi
enthusiastically
reported, "It is the
resort of people of
all countries whose
manufactures present
an astonishing
display and it is
beyond measure
remarkable in
populous ness and
extent." During this
time various
Portuguese
missionaries
attended Akbar's
court and Father
Monserrate, as the
tutor of his son
Murad, traveled in
his train and penned
a graphic account of
the period.
Eulogising Lahore,
Monserrate declared
"This city is second
to none, either in
Asia or in Europe,
with regard to size,
population, and
wealth. It is
crowded with
merchants, who
foregather there
from all over Asia.
In all these
respects it excels
other cities, as
also in the huge
quantity of every
kind of merchandise
which is imported."
It is evident that
the fame of the
Mughal Empire and of
Lahore itself had
reached the four
corners of the earth
and the city
received many
English visitors
such as Ralph Fitch,
John Newberry,
William Leedes,
Storey and John
Mildenhall.
The construction of
the citadel was
taken up in earnest
by Akbar. After
having built Agra
and Fatehpur Sikri
as impressive
capitals, Lahore was
taken up as an
Akbari showcase for
the best of
architectural
ensembles of the
period. Abul Fazi
confirmed that "many
splendid buildings"
had been erected and
"delightful gardens"
laid by Akbar which
lent the city
"additional beauty."
During the latter
part of Akbar's
reign, there had
been disagreement
between the emperor
and his son Salim,
when the latter
established himself
in Allahabad with
the title of Shah
Salim, and Akbar
became inclined
towards his grandson
Prince Khusraw as
successor. It was
not surprising then,
that in spite of the
rapprochement
between Salim and
Akbar, Khusraw, a
favorite of his
grandfather, aspired
to become emperor.
JAHANGIR
After the death of
Akbar, the drama
that unfolded itself
at the outset of
Jahangir's reign was
enacted on the
Lahore stage. Prince
Khusraw, born of
Rajput aristocrat
Raja Man Singh's
sister titled Shah
Begam (d.
1013/1605), and
son-in-law of
Akbar's foster
brother, Khan-e-Azam
Aziz Koka, had been
a favourite of his
grandfather and
considered "the most
popular prince in
the empire." Soon
after Jahangir's
 accession (April
1606), Khusraw broke
into open rebellion,
left Agra with 350
of his men and fled
to Lahore. He was
joined by Husain
Beg, the son of
Mirza Shah Rukh, and
Abdul- Rahim, son of
Bayram Khan. By the
time Khusraw reached
Lahore, the number
of his followers had
risen to 12,000. In
spite of his
exhorting his troops
to attack Lahore and
the promise of booty
from the city's
seven-day-plunder,
the recently
strengthened citadel
fortifications
thwarted his design.
Hot in pursuit, the
emperor arrived in
Mirza Kamran's
garden, and was in
no mood to show
leniency, declaring,
"Kingship regards
neither son nor
son-in-law. No one
is a relation to a
king." Captured
while trying to
cross the river
Chenab, a crushed
Khusraw was brought
into the presence of
the emperor.
Jahangir recorded in
his Tuzuk (Jahangir's
memoirs) that
Khusraw was brought,
"weeping and
trembling," between
his two friends
Husain Beg and
Abdul-Rahim, "his
hands tied and
chains on his legs
from the left side
after the manner of
Chingiz Khan."
Khusraw was ordered
into confinement and
his two friends
placed alive in
skins of animals,
and further
humiliated by being
placed on assses
with their faces to
the tail. Although
Abdul-Rahim survived
the ordeal, Husain
Beg died of
suffocation. Khusraw
was forced to
traverse the route
to the citadel on an
elephant, to witness
the gruesome
spectacle of the
bodies of 300 of his
followers impaled on
stakes lining the
route from Mirza
Kamran's garden to
the fort.
Another victim of
the struggle for the
imperial crown was
Guru Arjun, who had
placed a good
fortune mark on
Khusraw's head when
the latter had
visited him. The
Sikh Guru had to pay
for his indiscretion
by being confined to
jail. He died in
captivity — his
followers believing
that he had
disappeared
miraculously in the
waters of the Ravi.
Conquered and
consolidated by his
father, Jahangir had
been given a 'large
and prosperous
empire' the
boundaries of which
stretched from the
confines of Persia
in the west to the
Bay of Bengal in the
east, and from the
northern region of
Kashmir to the
southern limit of
Ahmadnagar in the
Deccan. Jahangir was
"thought to be the
greatest emperor of
the East for wealth,
land, and force of
men, as also for
horses, elephants,
camels and
dromedaries."
With the riches of
the proverbial seven
kings at his
disposal, it was no
surprise that lavish
spending governed
the emperor's
lifestyle. A royal
patron par
excellence, Jahangir
was entirely
enamored with the
art of painting and
referred repeatedly
to his enjoyment in
viewing works of
arts and the
exploits of his
court painters. His
consistent patronage
of the arts was due
mainly to the
generally peaceful
conditions in a vast
empire that had been
consolidated by his
father; but also to
the indolent
temperament of
Jahangir
himself—harboring
greater fondness for
tiger-hunting and
hawking, fishing and
boating than for
warfare.
His consort, the
famous NurJahan,
whom he married in
1611, became a
patron of art and
architecture in her
own right. Nur Jahan,'
born Mihrunnisa (b.
1577-1645), was the
daughter ofKhwaja (Mirza)
Ghiyasuddin Muhammad
Ghiyas Beg Taharani,
an immigrant from
Persia, who along
with his family had
fled to Hindustan,
and rose to exalted
positions in the
cosmopolitan court
of Akbar, later
becoming finance
minister and a
trusted noble at
Jahangir's court. On
his death in 1621,
Nur Jahan assumed
the position of
finance minister,
and her drums and
orchestra were
sounded after those
of the king.
With the enormous
wealth at her
disposal, earned
from revenues from
her fakirs (fiefs)
such as Ramsar (in
the vicinity of
Ajmer), or Parganah
of Boda (with the
revenue of Rupees
200,000), she built
extravagantly and
entertained
lavishly,
constructing
pleasure gardens,
palaces, lofty tombs
and elegant serais
throughout the
empire.
Jahangir set up his
capita] in Lahore in
1622, but even
before that he had
made preparations
for his stay by
despatching Abdul
Karim Mamur Khan,
his favorite
architect, to build
several palaces in
the citadel—the
chronicles recording
how Prince Khurram
(later Shahjahan)
made haste to Lahore
to inspect the
palace buildings
that were being
completed at the
time.
The last years of
Jahanagir's reign
were extremely
troublesome. The
year 1031/1622 was
particularly
inauspicious: He
himself continued to
be unwell; his
mother
Maryamuzzamani died
in Agra; Qandahar
 swas lost; and his
once favourite
Khurram (later
Shahjahan), now out
of favour and
referred to as
bidaulat 'that
wretch', remained a
source of trouble,
even though he was
on the run.
Jahangir died in
Rajauri in 1627, on
his return journey
from Kashmir. A
lasting link of
Jahangir with the
city of Lahore would
be established when
his body was sent to
Lahore with an
escort and buried on
Friday in Nur
Jahan's garden at
Shahdara. His
mausoleum,
supervised by Nur
Jahan, with its four
towering corner
towers, took ten
years to build, cost
ten lakhs of rupees
and became a major
landmark of the
city.
Jahangir's death
resulted in a tussle
between the Nur
Jahan faction and
that of her brother
Asaf Khan. Nur Jahan
wished for the
enthronement of her
son-in-law, Shahryar,
the husband of her
daughter Ladii Begam
from her first
husband, while Asaf
Khan, the
father-in-law of
Prince Khurram was
obviously keen to
see the latter
assume the throne.
In the absence of
Khurram—a thousand
miles and three
months' journey away
in the Dakhin—Yaminuddawla
Asaf Khan acted
swiftly, and as a
first step placed
his recently widowed
sister under guard.
Having contained the
Shahryar-Nur Jahan
threat, Asaf Khan
dispatched a
fleet-footed runner,
along with his muhur
(signet ring) to
Khurram urging him
to claim the throne
in Agra at the
earliest possible
moment. In Lahore he
placed Shahjahan's
nephew, Dawar Bakhsh
(also named Bulaqi),
on the throne—a
sacrificial lamb, in
whose name the
khutba was read
after Friday
prayers, and coins
struck in the mint
of Lahore. A gory
drama was played out
in Lahore when a
number of Mughal
princes were
assassinated,
including the
unfortunate Shahryar,
and the recently
declared emperor
Dawar Bakhsh, as
soon as it was clear
that Shahjahan had
assumed the throne
in Agra.
SHAHJAHAN
On 1 February 1628
Shahjahan entered
the city of Agra
with "great pomp and
splendour mounted on
an elephant."
Adopting the
elaborate title of 'Abul
Muzaffar Shihab
al-Din Muhamad,
Sahib-Qiran Sani
(Sahib-Qiran II, the
title of Amir Temur),
Shahjahan Padshah
Ghazi' Khurram
"ascended the throne
in the Akbarabad
(Agra) fort" on
Monday, 14 February,
1628.
Shahjahan,
considered a
remarkably handsome
and cultured man,
had exquisite taste,
and being
 exceedingly partial
to rare and
beautiful objects,
became known as a
great patron of arts
and architecture. At
the same time, the
wide-ranging
experience and
tactical skill
acquired by him when
still a prince,
stood him in good
stead in the
governance of his
empire.
Shahjahan's love for
the architectural
tour de force became
legendary. The
grandeur attained by
his architectural
edifices was due not
only to the enormous
resources expended
but also the
profound personal
attention of the
emperor, for, the
chronicler declared,
"He (Shahjahan)
alone possesses the
discriminating eye."
From the famed Taj
Mahal alone, which
he built in memory
of his favorite wife
Mumtaz Mahal, who
died in childbirth
in 1631, Shahjahan's
architectural flair
can be gauged.
Lahore, the city of
his birth, was much
favored by the
emperor, and
prospered greatly as
the second capital
of the empire. From
the account of Fra
Sebastian Manrique,
we learn that Lahore
flowered when
Shahjahan resided
there for an
extended period as
he did on his second
visit (22 November
1638 to November
1642).
This ruler had the
foresight to appoint
governors, such as
Ali Mardan Khan and
Hakim Aliuddin,
better known as
Wazir Khan, who
adorned the city
with beautiful
structures.
Shahjahan himself
was keen that the
citadel should
acquire the best
architectural
edifices that the
empire had to offer.
Accordingly,
directives were
given, almost
immediately after
his accession, to
undertake building
works at the Lahore
palace for the
extension of Shah
Burj and the
fortification wall
begun during
Jahangir's reign. By
the time Shahjahan
arrived on his first
visit (1634), the
work on various
buildings in the
quadrangle of Shah
Burj, also known as
Mussaman Burj, had
been completed, as
was the great mural
wall depicting
images in brilliant
kashi kari (tile
mosaic) work.
Thus the Lahore
palace acquired the
Naulakha Pavilion
and the Shish Mahal
constructed in the
Shah Burj, as it did
the chihil sntun
(forty-pillared) of
Diwan-e-Aam (Public
Audience Hall),
providing cover to
those participating
in the daily ritual
of the court. Later
constructions
include a palace
building,
Diwan-e-Khass, and
the well-crafted
Moti Masjid (Pearl
Mosque). The various
projects undertaken
by him for the
enhancement of the
fort and the gardens
laid out by him such
as the spectacular
Shalamar Gardens
speak of his
attachment to the
city of Lahore.
Shahjahan's visits
to Lahore were quite
frequent, not least
because of his love
for Kashmir and the
need to spend the
hot months in that
cool verdant valley.
His last visit to
Lahore was in 1652.
He was to see the
second capital nor
his beloved Kashmir
again. Within six
years, during the
struggle for the
crown among his
sons, his favorite
Prince Dara Shikoh
Buland Iqbal, would
be defeated and
killed by Prince
Aurangzeb, and he
himself imprisoned
in the palace of
Akbarabad until his
death in 1076/1666.
Prince Dara Shikoh
was the Mughal
prince most closely
associated with the
city of Lahore. For
many years he had
been viewed as the
heir to the Mughal
throne. Dara, a poet
and a philosopher,
was a liberal in the
tradition of his
great-grandfather
Akbar. With wide
religious
sympathies, inclined
towards Sufism, he
was tolerant of
Hinduism as well as
of Christianity.
However, in a
Hindustan where the
process of
governance according
to precepts of the
Islamic Shariah had
been started by
Shahjahan, "Dara's
'emancipated' ideas
did him more harm
than good, and
formed a pretext for
his destruction."
Aurangzeb & Later
Mughals
The third son of
Shahjahan, Aurangzeb
became a serious
contender to the
throne. A confident
Dara, with the
weight of
Shahjahan's
authority behind
him, and backed by
an enormous army and
artillery, was
forced to embark on
counteracting
Aurangzeb's bid for
power. As is
well-known, Dara
lost a winning
battle at Samugarh
(later named
Fathabad by
Aurangzeb) when he
decided to heed
Khalilullah
 Khan and
dismounted his lofty
elephant to ride a
horse. After his
disastrous defeat,
Dara, ashamed to
face his father,
fled, taking with
him his family and
"as much treasure
and stores as he
could."
Dara Shikoh had
arrived in Lahore
(13 July 1658), the
city which he loved.
Lahore in return
rose to his support,
providing him an
army of 20,000
horsemen with which
to withstand
Aurangzeb's
onslaught. But
Aurangzeb, within
six days of
coronation, decided
to set out in
pursuit of his
eldest brother. As
the pursuing army
reached Sutlej river
(24 August, 1658),
Dara, left Lahore in
panic and retreated.
With the numbers of
his army depleted at
every step, the
unfortunate Dara
fled from Multan to
Uchch, Sukkur and
Bhakkar, Sehwan and
Thatta and to Rann
of Kacch. After the
battle at Deorai,
two kos (miles) from
Ajmer, and left with
barely 2,000
followers, he
decided to retrace
his steps and flee
to Iran via the
Bolan Pass and
Qandahar, as his
ancestor Humayun had
done. However, once
his beloved wife
Nadira Begam,
daughter of his
uncle Sultan Parvez,
succumbed to
exhaustion and
dysentery, he was
left with little
motivation to
continue. Against
the advice of his
son SipihrShikoh, he
despatched the
remaining troops
with his wife's body
to Lahore to be
buried where her
dignified mausoleum
was built in the
shadow of the shrine
of Dara's'spiritual
guide', the saint
Mian Mir.
The gruesome scene
that was played out
at the beginning of
Shahjahan's reign in
Lahore, was
re-enacted in
Shahjahanabad by
Aurangzeb, when the
emperor's brother
and his nephew were
captured. They were
both murdered on 8
September 1659,
after the indignity
and public
humiliation of being
shackled and paraded
through the streets
of the capital.
With the death of
Dara Shikoh, the
golden period of
Lahore was over.
Aurangzeb was
engaged in trying to
maintain the empire
in the face of the
onslaught from the
Marathas and other
disgruntled states.
The Later Mughals,
particularly Shah
Alam were partial to
Lahore, but it never
again enjoyed the
•status of second
capital that it had
during the reign of
the first three
Great Mughals.
The decaying Mughal
Empire was hardly in
a position to
nurture Lahore. As
capital of an
outlying province
there was little
that could be done
to protect it. The
province was exposed
to recurring
insurrections,
during which time
the Sikhs managed to
assume ascendancy.
The attacks by the
Afghan Ahmed Shah
Durrani, who
eventually gave over
the governance of
Lahore to the Sikhs,
devastated the city.
The rise of Ranjit
Singh and his
acquisition of
chieftainship from
Shah Zaman, the
Afghan king, brought
Lahore and the
Punjab under full
control of the
Sikhs.
The Sikhs and the
British
Though Lahore became
important as an
outpost required by
the growing power of
the British to
secure the northwest
borders, there was
much destruction of
historic buildings
during that period.
During their initial
contact, the British
valued and nurtured
their relationship
with the Sikhs, but
the inter-Sikh wars
and the First
Anglo-Sikh War on
the battleground of
Mudki, Ferozeshah,
and Sobraon provided
the opportunity for
them to seize
control of the
Punjab.
As a result of the
Anglo-Sikh treaty
signed in Lahore in
March 1846, a
British force was
stationed in the
fort. By December
1846 another
convention was
signed which
resulted in a
permanent cantonment
for the British
troops which were
garrisoned in
Anarkali, and thus
the tomb of Anarkali
was converted into a
garrison church.
This arrangement was
intended to last for
another eight years
until the infant
Maharaja Dulip Singh
had attained his
majority. However,
when Mulraj rebelled
in Multan, the
Second Anglo-Sikh
War on the
battleground of
Multan and Gujrat
heralded the total
ascendancy of the
British. On March
29, 1849, the
sovereignty of the
Punjab passed from
the hands of the
Sikh Maharaja to the
British Resident,
Sir Henry Lawrence.
Dulip Singh was
provided an annuity
of £ 50,000 in lieu
of the Kohinoor
diamond and the
state of the Punjab.
The British colors
were hoisted from
the ramparts of
Lahore citadel
declaring Lahore to
be the capital of a
British province.
For the next 100
years, the British
endeavor to beautify
Lahore in the manner
of the Great Mughals
paid dividends in
the form of
spectacular
structures. These
impressive buildings
adorned the city of
Lahore, and at the
same time the local
inhabitants and
local merchant
princes, impressed
by the new
architectural idiom
built
imperial-vernacular
structures,
intermixing the
local motifs with
European classical
or gothic imagery.
The style that
really flourished
well on the soil of
the Punjab was the
brick-based Anglo-Mughal
architecture, which
due to the
enthusiasm of
artist-teachers such
as Lockwood Kipling
resulted in some
spectacular
buildings using the
exquisite
craftsmanship that
existed in the
province. During the
early years of
occupation there was
considerable
tampering with the
perimeter walls of
the walled city and
the citadel to
ensure proper
surveillance. Many
buildings were
adapted and altered
to fulfill the
requirements of the
rulers, but by the
end of the 19th
century, the
realization of the
importance of the
cultural heritage of
the subcontinent
resulted in a new
awakening for its
protection and
restoration. |
